Vehicle Tracking System

Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. ijera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 616-625 GSM AND GPS BASED VEHICLE LOCATION AND TRACKING SYSTEM 1 Baburao Kodavati, 2 V. K. Raju, 3S. Srinivasa Rao, 4A. V. Prabu, 5T. Appa Rao, 6 Dr. Y. V. Narayana 1. Asst. Prof in ECE Dept, 2. Asso. Prof in ECE Dept 3. HOD of ECE Dept 4. Lecturar in AE&IE Dept,5.. Asst. Prof in EE Dept. 6. Principal 1,2,&4,5- Gandhi Institute Of Engg & Technology , Gunupur,Rayagada,Orissa-765022,India 3. IACREC,rayagada,Orissa. . TEC, Jonnalagadda(P), Narasaraopet-522601, Guntur(Dist), A. P. ABSTRACT: A vehicle tracking system combines the installation of an electronic device in a vehicle, or fleet of vehicles, with purpose-designed computer software to enable the owner or a third party to track the vehicle's location, collecting data in the process. Modern vehicle tracking systems co mmonly use Global Positioning System (GPS) technology for locating the vehicle, but other types of automatic vehicle location technology can also be used. Vehicle information can be viewed on electronic maps via the Internet or specialized software.In the main they are easy to steal, and the average motorist has very little knowledge of what it is all about. To avoid this kind of steal we are going to implement a system it provides more security to the vehicle. Existing System: In the previous system security lock and alarm is implemented in a car. If a burglar can break open the lock, then it becomes easy for the burglar to steal the car. And in old security system if the car is stolen then it is out of the owner control. User doesn’t have any awareness about the current location of the vehicle.The Proposed System: The RF transmitter is attached with the vehicle which has its own identification. This data will be continuously transmitted to the RF receiver connected to the m icrocontroller. This GPS will be location the position of vehicle and transmit that data to the microcontroller. Suppose the RF receiver not receiving signal from the transmitting unit, receiver unit send the signal to the microcontroller, from that we can identify the theft. If the vehicle is theft it automatically sends location of the vehicle to its owner as a SMS through GSM modem.This will be a much simpler and low cost technique compared to others. If a password like SMS is sent by the owner, it automatically stops the vehicle Keywords: Global Positioning System (GPS), RF receiver and transmitter, operations and maintenance center (OMC) and Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK). 1. INTRODUCTION: GSM and GPS based vehicle location and tracking system will provide effective, real time vehicle location, mapping and reporting this information value and adds by improving the level of service provided.A GPS-based vehicle tracking system will inform where your vehicle is and where it has been, how long it has been. The system uses geographic position and time information from the Global Positioning Satellites. The system has an â€Å"OnBoard Module† which resides in the vehicle to be tracked and a â€Å"Base Station† that monitors data from the various vehicles. The On-Board module consists of GPs receiver, a GSM modem www. ijera. com 616 | P a g e Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. jera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 616-625 1. 1 Vehicle Tracking System: A vehicle tracking system combines the installation of an electronic device in a vehicle, or fleet of vehicles, with purposedesigned computer software at least at one operational base to enable the owner or a third party to track the vehicle's location, collecting data in the process from the field and deliver it to the base of operation. Modern vehicle tracking systems commonly use GPS or GLONASS technology for locating the vehicle, but other types of automatic vehicle location technology can also be used.Vehicle information can be viewed on electronic maps via the Internet or specialized software. Vehicle tracking systems are also popular in consumer vehicles as a theft prevention and retrieval device. Police can simply follow the signal emitted by the tracking system and locate the stolen vehicle. When used as a security system, a Vehicle Tracking System may serve as either an addition to or replacement for a traditional Car alarm. Some vehicle tracking systems make it possible to control vehicle remotely, including block doors or engine in case of emergency.The existence of vehicle tracking device then can be used to reduce the insurance cost. 1. 2 GSM Overview: Special Mobile), Global System for Mobile is the world's most Fig 1. GSM Modem Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. A GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network.A wireless modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a dial-up modem 2. GSM MODEM: 1. 3 GPS Overview: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that provides reliable location and time information in all weather and at all times and anywhere on or near the Earth when and where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver.The GPS project was started in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessor s, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. GPS was created and realized by the U. S. Department of Defense (USDOD) and was originally run with 24 satellites. It became fully operational in 1994. both consumers, who may benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network operators, who can choose equipment from many GSM equipment vendors. Communications or GSM (originally from Groupe opular standard for mobile telephone systems. The GSM Association estimates that 80% of the global mobile market uses the standard. [1] GSM is used by over 1. 5 billion people [2] across more than 212 countries and territories. [3] This ubiquity means that subscribers can use their phones throughout the world, enabled by international roaming arrangements between mobile network operators. GSM differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and speech channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a secon d generation (2G) mobile phone system. The GSM standard has been an advantage to www. jera. com 617 | P a g e Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. ijera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 616-625 sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends and receives data through radio waves. The working of GSM modem is based on commands, the commands always start with AT (which means ATtention) and finish with a character. For example, the dialing command is ATD; ATD3314629080; here the dialing command ends with semicolon.The AT commands are given to the GSM modem with the help of PC or controller. The GSM modem is serially interfaced with the controller with the help of MAX 232.. 2. 1 Circuit Diagram: GSM system. To achieve the basic definition of a new system a meeting was held in 1982 under the auspices of the Confer ence of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT). They formed a study group called the Groupe Special Mobile ( GSM ) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system. Several basic criteria that the new cellular technology would have to meet were set down for the new GSM system to meet.These included: good subjective speech quality, low terminal and service cost, support for international roaming, ability to support handheld terminals, support for range of new services and facilities, spectral efficiency, and finally ISDN compatibility. With the levels of under-capacity being projected for the analogue systems, this gave a real sense of urgency to the GSM development. Although decisions about the exact nature of the cellular technology were not taken at an early stage, all parties involved had been working toward a digital system. This decision was finally made in February 1987. This gave a variety of advantages.Greater levels of spectral efficiency could be gained, and in addition to this the use of digital circuitry would allow for higher levels of integration in the circuitry. This in turn would result in cheaper handsets with more features. Nevertheless Fig 2. GSM Modem Circuit Diagram significant hurdles still needed to be overcome. For example, many of the methods for encoding the speech within a sufficiently narrow bandwidth needed to be developed, and this posed a significant risk to the project. Nevertheless the GSM system had been started. Global usage:Originally GSM had been planned as a European system.However the first indication that the success of GSM was spreading further a field occurred when the Australian network provider, Telstra signed the GSM Memorandum of Understanding. New approaches: Neither of these approaches proved to be the long-term solution as cellular technology needed to be more efficient. With the experience gained from the NMT system, showing that it was possible to develop a system across national boundaries, and wi th the political situation in Europe lending itself to international cooperation it was decided to develop a new Pan-European System.Furthermore it was realized that economies of scale would bring significant benefits. This was the beginnings of the www. ijera. com 618 | P a g e Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. ijera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 616-625 Frequencies:Originally it had been intended that GSM would operate on frequencies in the 900 MHz cellular band. In September 1993, the British operator Mercury One-to-One launched a network.Termed DCS 1800 it operated at frequencies in a new 1800 MHz band. By adopting new frequencies new operators and further competition was introduced into the market apart from allowing additional spectrum to be used and further increasing the overall capacity. This trend was followed in many countries , and soon the term DCS 1800 was dropped in favour of calling it GSM as it was purely the same cellular technology but operating on a different frequency band. In view of the higher frequency used the distances the signals travelled was slightly shorter but this was ompensated for by additional base stations. In the USA as well a portion of spectrum at 1900 MHz was allocated for cellular usage in 1994. The licensing body, the FCC, did not legislate which technology should be used, and accordingly this enabled GSM to gain a foothold in the US market. This system was known as PCS 1900 (Personal Communication System) Fig 3. GSM Network Elements The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching system GSM provides recommendations, not and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system (OSS).The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance organizations. requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware.The reason for this is to limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS), the base station system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS). 3. THE GSM NETWORK: www. ijera. com 619 | P a g e Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. ijera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 16-625 SPECIFICATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS FOR GSM The specifications and characteristics for GSM ? frequency band—The frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to 1,990 MHz (mobile station to base station). ? duplex distance—The duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the distance between the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 80 MHz apart. ? channel separation—The separation between adjacent carrier frequencies. In GSM, this is 200 kHz. ? modulation—Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the characteristics of a carrier frequency.This is done in GSM via Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK). ? transmission rate—GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps. ? is used to send the position (Latitude and Longitude) of the vehicle from a remote place. The GPS modem will continuously give the data i. e. the latitude and longitude indicating the position of t he vehicle. The GPS modem gives many parameters as the output, but only the NMEA data coming out is read and displayed on to the LCD. The same data is sent to the mobile at the other end from where the position of the vehicle is demanded.An EEPROM is used to store the mobile number. The hardware interfaces to microcontroller are LCD display, GSM modem and GPS Receiver. The design uses RS-232 protocol modems for serial communication between the and the microcontroller. A serial driver IC is used for converting TTL voltage levels to RS-232 voltage levels. In the main they are easy to steal, and the average motorist has very little knowledge of what it is all about. To avoid this kind of steal we are going to implement this project which provides more security to the vehicle.When the request by user is sent to the number at the modem, the system automatically sends a return reply to that mobile indicating the position of RESULT 4. 1 GSM AND GPS BASED VECHICLE LOCATION AND TRACKING SYST EM Description Present project is designed using 8051 microcontroller in this Project it is proposed to design an embedded system which is used for tracking and positioning of any vehicle by using Global Positioning System (GPS) and Global system for mobile communication (GSM). the vehicle in terms of latitude and longitude from this information we can track our vehicles. 4. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES 4. . APPLICATIONS ? ? ? Stolen vehicle recovery . Field sevice management. It is used for food delivery and car rental companies. 4. 2 ADVANTAGES: In this project AT89S52 microcontroller is used for interfacing to various hardware peripherals. The current design is an embedded application, which will continuously monitor a moving Vehicle and report the status of the Vehicle on demand. For doing so an AT89S52 microcontroller is interfaced serially to a GSM Modem and GPS Receiver. A GSM modem ? From the remote place we can access the system. ? It provides more security than other system . www. ijera. om 620 | P a g e Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. ijera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 616-625 ? By this we can position the vehicle in exact place. [8] Youjing Cui and Shuzhi Sam Ge,†Autonomous vehicle positioning with GPS in urban canyon environments†, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, vol. 19, NO. 1, pp 15-25, February 2003. BOOKS REFFERED Adler, R. B. , A. C. Smith, and R. L. Longani: â€Å"Introduction to Semiconductor Physics,† vol. , p. 78, Semiconductor Electronics Education Comitee, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York ,1964. ? Jacob Millman Christos C. Halkias. : â€Å"Electronic Devices And Circuits†, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd. Sep, 2003. ? Schade, O. H. : â€Å"Analysis of Rectifier Operation†, proc. IRE, vol. 31, pp. 341-361, July, 1943. ? Stout, M. B. : â€Å"Analysis of Rectifier Circuits†, Elec. Eng. , vol. 54, September, 1935. ? The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems using Assembly and C by Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie, Rolin D. Mckinlay. ? Wireless communication and netwoking – JonW.Mark and Weihua Zhqung,PHI,2005. ? â€Å"Power Electronics† by M D Singh and K B Khanchandan ? â€Å"Linear Integrated Circuits† by D Roy Choudary & Shail Jain WEBSITES: ? http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sevensegment_display ? http://www. gsm-modem. de/ ? http://www. datasheetsite. com/datasheet/MA X232 ? http://www. rentron. com/rf_remote_control. h tm ? http://www. atmel. com/dyn/resources/prod_d ocuments/doc0401. pdf APPENDIX: SOURCE CODE MAIN SOURCE CODE ? 5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE Vehicle tracking system is becoming increasingly important in large cities and it is more secured than other systems.Now a days vehicle thefting is rapidly increasing , with this we can have a good control in it. The veh icle can be turned off by only with a simple SMS. Since, now a days the cost of the vehicles are increasing they will not step back to offord it. This setup can be made more interactive by adding a display to show some basic information about the vehicle and also add emergency numbers which can be used in case of emergency. Upgrading this setup is very easy which makes it open to future requirements without the need of rebuilding everything from scratch, which also makes it more efficient.JOURNALS REFFERED: [1] MarkoWolf, AndreWeimerskirch, and ThomasWollinger, â€Å"State of the Art: Embedding security in vehicles†, Journal on Embedded Systems, Volume 2007, Article ID 74706. [2] J. -P. Hubaux, S. C Apkun, and J. Luo, â€Å"The security and privacy of smart vehicles,† IEEE Security & Privacy Magazine, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 49–55, 2004. [3] Alison Brown, JacobGriesbach and Bruce Bockius, â€Å"GPS traking location based service using wrist watch GeoZigBee Sensorsâ € , Proceddings of ION NTM, 2007, Som Diego, pp 1-10, December 2007. [4] W. Stallings, â€Å"Cryptography and Network Security†, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 4th edition, 2005. 5] Ingrid Verbourwhede, Frank Hoornaert, Joos Vandewalle, Hugo J. Deman â€Å"Security and performance optimization of a new DES†, IEEE Journal on Solid State ciruits, vol. 23, no. 3, pp 647656, 1999. [6] National Institute of Standards & Technology, â€Å"FIPS-46-3: Data Encryption Standard (DES),† October 1977, reaffirmed in October 1999. [7] Sinpyo Hong, Man Hyung Lee, Sun Hong Kwon, and Ho Hwan Chun, â€Å"A Car test for the estimation of GPS/INS alignment errors†, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 5, NO. 3, pp 208-218, SEPTEMBER 2004. #include #include†SERIAL. c† #include†LCD. † sbit rf=P2^0; sbit relay=P0^1; sbit motor=P0^0; unsigned char asc,ok[2],r[4],a,n[15],e[15],i,oxoa, a,m[20],j,temp[10],temp1[10]; void cmdwrt_lcd(unsigned char cmd); void serial_transmit(unsigned char *srstr); void command(unsigned char d[]); void serial_tx(unsigned char srda); www. ijera. com 621 | P a g e Baburao Kodavati, V. K. Raju, S. Srinivasa Rao, A. V. Prabu, T. Appa Rao, Dr. Y. V. Narayana/ International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www. ijera. com Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 616-625 void delay1(); void gps() { do { do { oxoa = serial_rx(); }while(oxoa ! = 0x0A); for(i=0;i

Justice with Michel Sandel

Justice with Michel Sandel Silvia Molina University of Texas at El Paso Justice with Michel Sandel Harvard university professor Dr. Michel Sandel introduces two lecture episodes that discuss a number of philosophy related issues. In the first episode â€Å"The Moral Principles† Dr. Sandel begins the lecture with a story of a trolley cart in a path that may lead kill one, or five people. The decision to kill the one person in oppose to five, is left to a show of hands by participating students. The hypothetical scenario he paints in the story is to introduce moral reasoning.The students then participate in a critical thinking discussion to conclude what would be morality correct, whether to kill the one person so that five should live or vise versa. His story quickly unfolds to introduce two moral principles, one being consequentialist moral reasoning and the second is categorical moral reasoning. In the second part of his first lecture, Dr. Sandel discusses a very popular nine teenth century law case involving an ocean stranded crew of four. Sandel proceeds to initiate the discussion of the principles of utilitarian philosopher, Jeremy Bentham.The inauguration of arguments of utilitarianism follows what is discussed in the second episode â€Å"Putting a Price Tag on Life/How to Measure Pleasure†. The lecture in episode two also includes discussions of critical thinking and arguments by the students to support their contrasting views. Part one of the second episode discusses the cost benefit analysis that companies follow to put a price on human life. The second part in episode two introduces British philosopher John Stuart Mill who argues that utilitarian, those who have experienced high pleasure and lower pleasures will desire the higher pleasure.Utilitarianism is further debated in the lectures of Dr. Sandel as he goes in to details showing how utilitarianism plays a large role in everyday life circumstances as well as in economic situations. The Moral Principal Episode part one opens up with Michel Sandel sharing a story about a trolley cart. The story is as follows, a trolley cart is on a deadly path headed to the fatal crash that will kill five people. The wheel on the trolley cart works and can be steered to kill only one person. The students are asked their educated opinions on what is the right thing to do given the circumstances of the story.Most students answered saving five human lives with the expense of one human life would be the right thing to do. When the story is changed by Dr. Sandel and the human that is to save the lives of the five others is murdered the students opinions change. Sandel then proceeds to introduce the two moral principles that take place which are cosequentialist and categorical. Consequential moral reasoning is one that locates morality in the consequences of an act. Categorical locates morality in certain duties and rights. Both these moral principals where greatly debated by the student s. On the second part Dr.Sandel gives a brief introduction to utilitarianism and the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham. It describes Bentham’s view on the balance of pleasure over pain and the belief of the happiness or well being of the greatest number. The real life case presented, describes four sailors that survive after a massive shipwreck and are now fighting for survival at sea. One of the four sailors gets sick and the others decide to kill him to feed of his body. One of the students finds the idea of cannibalism in the case of necessity morally wrong and that it should not justify murder even though it would keep the rest of the three crew men alive.Another student defended the opposing view, by saying that as humans in a situation like such â€Å"we got to do what we have to do to survive†. Other circumstances are debated and the positions of the students change to be morally ok to have eaten the fourth member of the crew to keep the greater good for the gr eater number. In the opposing view some students still believe that it is morally wrong to not value human life as equally as the weaker sailor. The thoughts of this very famous case are the debates of categorical morality and of Bentham’s idea of the greater good for the greater number.Michel Sandel opens the second episode with a brief history on philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Bentham’s views on utilitarianism is that the highest principal of morality whether personal or political it is to maximize the general welfare or utility. Bentham states that we are all governed by pain and pleasure and must find a balance to achieve the greater good for the greatest number. Maximized utility is best attained when all the benefits are added up and all the costs are subtracted and the result is that happiness is greater than suffering. Dr. Sandel describes utilitarian logic as a cost benefit analysis that many corporations as well as overnments use to give measure to human life us ually in a monetary figure. A cost analysis example is based on a proposal to increase sales tax to cigarette sales in the Czech Republic. The analysis concludes that the Czech government benefits more from smokers. The cost analysis conducted states that the benefits of smoking are greater because smoking increases tax revenue, increases health care savings when people die early, and no more pension payments to those elderly that die early. Therefore the only costs would be an increase health care, which in this case does not outweigh the benefits of smoking.In a way the analysis are giving a monetary value to human life. Another view point by Dr. Sandel, is the Pinto case where a cost analysis was conducted to see if the benefits of adding a protective plate to the car were lower than the costs of human lives affected by not adding a protective plate to the fuel tank of the Pinto car. In argument, the utilitarian principle is discussed by some students that those lives and opinion s of the minority should not be less valuable than those of the majority. Some students believe that no monetary value should be placed on human lives.In other circumstances the students think someone has to make those decisions to be able to adequately take risks in certain situations. The monetary value that is placed on a human life by conducting cost analysis is done for the well being of the greater good to conclude into making important decisions by companies as well as governments. The second part in episode two Dr. Sandel mentions a personal experience that raises the question if all values can be turned into utilitarian terms. The objection to transform all values in to a single uniform measure such as utilitarian is objected by John Steward Mill.Mill believed that utilitarianism can be aligned with defending human rights. Mill also reasons that utilitarianism can distinguish higher pleasures from lower pleasures. The distinction of the lower and higher pleasure can be dist inguished by having experienced both pleasures and one who has experienced both will choose the higher pleasure always. Dr. Sandel proves his point by showing the class three videos in which they must choose one that can be described as the higher pleasure. After the viewing all three videos which were a clip by Hamlet, the other by fear factor, and finally The Simpsons.The class greatly agrees that the majority would pick the highest pleasure to be the clip by Hamlet and that Shakespeare is the highest pleasure out of all three. Exploring further the idea of utilitarianism a series of hypothetical moral reasoning situations can occur in the brother cities of El Paso, TX and Juarez, MX. The drug war happening in the city of Juarez is crucially affecting a developing economy that participates in the NFATA trade agreement. Large corporations have positioned its manufacturing plants to operate in the city of Juarez.With Juarez and El Paso trading goods and money extensively among count ries raises the idea of the following hypothetical scenario. In this hypothetical scenario involves a professional CEO of a major corporation residing in Juarez. The CEO of the corporation lives in El Paso and has to cross the international border to Juarez to be able to attend work on a daily basis. Sadly on any given day the CEO finds himself kidnapped by one of the drug cartels that are at war in Juarez. The drug cartel is asking for five million dollars in ransom for the CEO of the company.Therefore the company is suffering 10 million in losses a day without its CEO leader that conducts all major profitable operations run by him in the company. This scenario brings up the use of cost benefit analysis or utility discussed by Bentham. What would the company do in this situation? What is greater good for the greatest number is the question that should be asked? Would it be worth it to the company to pay the ransom or would the death of the CEO result in greater profit of interest t o the company. This example shows how a cost benefit analysis that can be conducted by the company in which it gives a monetary value to human life.It can be argued that there are other moral benefits to saving the CEO not just for the company but maybe because his family needs him. In a way it can also be argued that it is morally wrong to put a price on human life and that no matter what the company should pay a ransom no matter the amount. It can also be said that the CEO can easily be replaced in less than half a day and that the company could save its 10 million dollar losses for the day. Whatever the decision in the hypothetical scenario might turn out to be, the idea of cost benefit analysis is one that is used by all companies and business around the world.One, especially in business must sometimes come across difficult decisions and it is then when all theories moral reasoning and utilitarian must be applied to come to a conclusion. In sum, the discussion of the two episode s concludes that utility is applied to most certainly justice but to everyday decisions that are made by businesses around the world. Utilitarianism is referred by Bentham as the greater good for the greatest number in episode one of Justice with Michel Sandel.Last but not least in episode two, John Stuart Mill defends the concept of human rights in these words â€Å"Justice is a name for certain moral requirements, which, regarded collectively, stand higher in the score of social utility and are therefore of more paramount obligation than any others†. This quote, Mill says that it is ok to keep the laws and rules that exist only if there is a much greater reason for breaking them. Therefore utilitarian’s reason could be that saving a human life is a better reason in comparison to the loss of millions of dollars a company could sustain.Mill and Bentham dispute significantly ideas and create extensive room to ponder, but it is in our reasoning that these ideas can be co ncluded and interpreted only by one’s own moral reasoning. References Episode 01 – Justice with Michael Sandel. (n. d. ). Justice with Michael Sandel – Online Harvard Course Exploring Justice, Equality, Democracy, and Citizenship. Retrieved June 12, 2012, from http://www. justiceharvard. org/2011/03/episode-01/#watch Episode 02 – Justice with Michael Sandel. (n. d. ). Justice with Michael Sandel – Online Harvard Course Exploring Justice, Equality, Democracy, and Citizenship.Retrieved June 12, 2012, from http://www. justiceharvard. org/2011/02/episode-two/#watch Jeremy Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation (1780) – Justice with Michael Sandel. (n. d. ). Justice with Michael Sandel – Online Harvard Course Exploring Justice, Equality, Democracy, and Citizenship. Retrieved June 13, 2012, from http://www. justiceharvard. org/resources/jeremy-bentham-principles-of-morals-and-legislation-1780/ The Queen vs Dudley and Stephens (1884) (The Lifeboat Case) – Justice with Michael Sandel. (n. d. ). Justice with Michael

Liquid Chromatography

9. 1 Orbitals and Theories of Chemical Bonding 1. Which one of the statements concerning valence bond (VB) and molecular orbital (MO) bond theories is correct? a) MO theory predicts that electrons are localized between pairs of atoms. b) In VB theory, bonding electrons are delocalized over the molecule. c) MO theory accurately describes bonding in O2 and NO, VB theory does not. d) VB theory can describe molecular bonding in excited states. e) MO theory is used to accurately predict the colors of compounds. Answer: c 9. 2 Valence Bond Theory 2. Which of the following statements is/are CORRECT? . The overlap between an s orbital and a p orbital is called a pi-bond. 2. The overlap of two s orbitals in H2 is called a sigma bond. 3. HF is formed from the overlap of a hydrogen 1s orbital with a fluorine 2s orbital. a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 onlyd) 2 and 3e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: b 3. Which of the following statements concerning hybrid orbitals is/are CORRECT? 1. The number of hybrid orbitals eq uals the number of atomic orbitals that are used to create the hybrids. 2. When atomic orbitals are hybridized, the s orbital and at least one p orbital are always hybridized. 3. To create octahedral structures, two d orbitals must be hybridized along with the s and all three p orbitals. a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 onlyd) 2 and 3e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: e 4. How many sigma (? ) bonds and pi (? ) bonds are in ethene, C2H4? a) four ? , one ? b) four ? , two ? c) five ? , one ? d) five ? , two ? e) six ? , zero ? Answer: c 5. How many sigma (? ) bonds and pi (? ) bonds are in carbon monoxide? a) three ? , zero ? b) two ? , one ? c) two ? , two ? d) one ? , two ? e) zero ? , three ? Answer: d 6. How many sigma (? ) bonds and pi (? ) bonds are in the following molecule? a) seven ? nd three ? b) seven ? and two ? c) five ? and five ? d) five ? and three ? e) five ? and two ? Answer: a 7. To form a molecule with a trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry, what set of pure atomic orbitals must be mixed? a) one s and three p b) one s, three p, and one d c) one s, three p, and two d d) two s, six p, and two d e) two s, six p, and four d Answer: b 8. What is the maximum number o f hybridized orbitals formed by a fluorine atom? a) 1b) 2c) 3d) 4e) 6 Answer: d 9. What is the hybridization of either carbon atom in acetylene, C2H2? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: a 10. What is the hybridization of the nitrogen atom in NCl3? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: c 11. What is the hybridization of the xenon atom in XeF2? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: d 12. What is the hybridization of the central nitrogen atom in nitrite ion, NO2-? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: b 13. What is the hybridization of the chlorine atom in chlorite ion, ClO2-? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: c 14. What is the hybridization of the central atom in a molecule with a square-planar molecular geometry? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: e 15. What is the hybridization of each carbon atom in benzene, C6H6? Benzene contains a six-member carbon ring. a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: b 16. For which of the following molecules does the central carbon atom have sp2 hybridization? a) Cl2COb) CHCl3c) CS2d) CH2Cl2e) HCN Answer: a 17. For which of the following molecules and ions does the central nitrogen atom have sp3 hybridization? a) NO2-b) HNO3c) NOBrd) NBr3e) HNO2 Answer: d 18. For which of the following molecules and ions does the central atom have sp hybridization: NO2+, O3, and I3-? a) NO2+ onlyb) O3 onlyc) I3- onlyd) O3 and I3-e) I3- and NO2+ Answer: a 9. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp3 hybridized and has two lone pairs of electrons? a) bent b) linear c) trigonal-planar d) trigonal-pyramidal e) trigonal-bipyramidal Answer: a 20. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp3d2 hybridized and has one lone pair of electrons? a) tetrahedral b) trigonal-bipyramidal c) square-planar d) square-pyramidal e) see-saw Answer: d 21. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp2 hybridized, has three sigma bonds, and one pi bond? a) trigonal-planar b) trigonal-pyramidal c) bent d) T-shaped e) tetrahedral Answer: a 2. What is the molecular geometry around a central atom that is sp3d hybridized and has one lone pair of eletrons? a) trigonal bipyramidal b) trigonal-pyramidal c) see-saw d) tetrahedral e) square-planar Answer: c 23. What is the hybridization of a central atom that has four sigma bonds and has no lone pairs of electrons? a) spb) sp2c) sp3d) sp3de) sp3d2 Answer: c 24. Upon heating, CaCO3 decomposes to CaO and CO2. What change in the hybridization of carbon occurs in this reaction? a) sp to sp2b) sp2 to sp3c) sp3 to spd) sp2 to spe) no change Answer: d 25. One product of the combustion of ethane, C2H6, is carbon dioxide. What change in hybridization of the carbon occurs in this reaction? a) sp3 to sp2b) sp3 to spc) sp2 to sp3d) sp2 to sp3d2e) sp2 to sp Answer: b 26. Nitric acid, HNO3, dissociates in water to form nitrate ions and hydronium ions. What change in hybridization of the nitrogen atom occurs in this dissociation? a) sp2 to sp3b) sp2 to spc) sp3 to spd) sp to sp3e) no change Answer: e 27. Which of the following hybridized atoms is not possible? a) an sp hybridized carbon atom b) an sp2 hybridized sulfur atom c) an sp3 hybridized phosphorus atom d) an sp3d hybridized oxygen atom e) an sp3d2 hybridized xenon atom Answer: d 8. Which of the following characteristics apply to SO2? 1. polar bonds 2. nonpolar molecule 3. linear molecular shape 4. sp hybridized a) 1 onlyb) 1 and 2c) 3 and 4d) 1, 2, and 3e) 1, 2, 3, and 4 Answer: a 29. Dichloromethane, CH2Cl2, is a common organic solvent. Which of the following statements concerning dichloromethane is/are CORRECT? 1. CH2Cl2 has two isomers. For one i somer of CH2Cl2, the chlorine atoms are adjacent to each other and the molecule is polar. 2. CH2Cl2 has two isomers. For one isomer of CH2Cl2, the chlorine atoms are on opposites sides of the carbon atom and the molecule is nonpolar. 3. The hybridization of the central carbon atom is sp3. a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 onlyd) 1 and 2e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: c 30. For which of the following compounds is it possible for cis and trans isomers to exist? a) 1 onlyb) 2 onlyc) 3 only d) 1 and 2e) 1, 2, and 3 Answer: b 31. Which of the underlined atoms (C1, C2, N, and O) are sp2 hybridized? a) C1 and C2 b) C1, N, and O c) N and O d) O and C2 e) O only Answer: a 9. 3 Molecular Orbital Theory 32. All of the following statements concerning molecular orbital (MO) theory are correct EXCEPT a) the Pauli exclusion principle is obeyed. b) Hund’s rule is obeyed. ) electrons are assigned to orbitals of successively higher energy. d) a bonding molecular orbital is lower in energy than its parent atomic orbitals. e) the combination of two atomic orbitals creates only one molecular orbital. Answer: e 33. Atomic orbitals combine most effectively to form molecular orbitals when a) electrons in the orbitals have no spins. b) electrons in the orbitals have the same spin. c) the atomic orbitals are hybridized. d) the atomic orbitals have similar energies. e) p-orbitals are half-filled. Answer: d 34. A molecular orbital that decreases the electron density between two nuclei is said to be ________. ) hybridizedb) bondingc) antibondingd) pi-bondinge) nonpolar Answer: c The following molecular orbital diagram may be used for problems 35-48. For oxygen and fluorine, the ? 2p orbital should be lower in energy than the ? 2p. However, the diagram will still yield correct bond order and magnetic behavior for these molecules. |Energy | |________ |? *2p | | | | | | |________ | |________ |? 2p | | | | | | | |________ |? 2p | | | | | | |________ | |________ |? 2p | | | | | | | |________ |? 2s | | | | | | | |________ |? 2s | | | | | | | |________ |? *1s | | | | | | | |________ |? s | 35. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following species is the most likely to exist? a) H22-b) He2c) Li22-d) Be2e) Be22- Answer: e 36. A ccording to molecular orbital theory, which of the following species is least likely to exist? a) Be2b) F22+c) C22-d) Li2e) B22- Answer: a 37. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following species has the highest bond order? a) F2b) F22+c) C22-d) Li2e) B22+ Answer: c 38. According to molecular orbital theory, what is the bond order of oxygen, O2? a) 1b) 3/2c) 2d) 5/2e) 3 Answer: c 39. According to molecular orbital theory, what is the bond order of N2-? a) 1b) 3/2c) 2d) 5/2e) 3 Answer: d 40. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following lists ranks the oxygen species in terms of increasing bond order? a) O22+ < O22- < O2 b) O22- < O2 < O22+ c) O2 < O22+ < O22- d) O2 < O22- < O22+ e) O22+ < O2 < O22- Answer: b 41. Consider the molecules B2, C2, N2 and O2. Which two molecules have the same bond order? a) B2 and C2b) B2 and O2c) C2 and N2d) C2 and O2e) N2 and O2 Answer: d 42. Use molecular orbital theory to predict which species is paramagnetic. ) N2b) O2c) F2d) Li2e) H2 Answer: b 43. Use molecular orbital theory to predict which ion is paramagnetic. a) F22+b) O22-c) O22+d) N22+e) B22- Answer: a 44. 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What is the molecular orbital configuration of NO? a) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)1 b) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)2 (? 2p)2 (? *2p)2 c) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? 2s)2 (? 2p)2 (? 2p)3 d) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)4 (? 2p)1 e) [core electrons] (? 2s)2 (? *2s)2 (? 2p)2 Answer: a 47. Assuming that the molecular orbital energy diagram for a homonuclear diatomic molecule appli es to a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, determine which of the following species has the highest bond order. a) NO-b) OF-c) CN-d) O2e) NO Answer: c 48. Assuming that the molecular orbital energy diagram for a homonuclear diatomic molecule applies to a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, determine which of the following species is paramagnetic. a) NO+b) COc) CN-d) OF-e) NO Answer: e 49. Which molecule will have the following valence molecular orbital level energy diagram? |? *2p | | | | |? *2p | | | | |? 2p | |[pic] | | |? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | a) Li2b) Be2c) B2d) C2e) N2 Answer: e 50. The following valence molecular orbital energy level diagram is appropriate for which one of the listed species? |? 2p | | | | |? *2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? 2p | |[pic] | | |? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | a) B22-b) C22-c) N22-d) O22-e) F22- Answer: c 51. Which molecule will have the following valence molecular orbital energy level diagram? |? *2p | | | | |? *2p | | | | |? 2p | | | | ? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | a) Li2b) Be2c) B2d) C2e) F2 Answer: d 52. In the NO2- ion, each atom can be viewed as sp2 hybridized. Thus, each atom has one remaining unhybridized p orbital. How many ? 2p molecular orbitals (including both bonding and antibonding orbitals) are form ed using the unhybridized p orbitals? a) 1b) 3c) 4d) 6e) 12 Answer: b 53. Benzene, C6H6, consists of a six member ring of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has one unhybridized p orbital. How many ? p bonding, antibonding, and nonbonding molecular orbitals exist for benzene? a) Three ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; two bonding and one antibonding. b) Three ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; one bonding, one antibonding, and one nonbonding. c) Six ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; three bonding and three antibonding. d) Six ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; two bonding, two nonbonding, and two antibonding. e) Twelve ? 2p molecular orbitals exist; six bonding and six antibonding. Answer: c Short Answer Questions 54. Which theory, valence bond or molecule orbital, correctly predicts the existence of paramagnetic molecules? Answer: molecular orbital theory 55. In valence bond theory, each sigma bond in CH4 is formed from the overlap of a hydrogen atom’s 1s orbital with a ____ hybridized orbital on the carbon atom. Answer: sp3 56. In molecular orbital theory, the bond order is defined as 1/2(the number of electrons in ________ orbitals minus the number of electrons in antibonding orbitals). Answer: bonding 57. Triiodide ion, I3-, has a trigonal-bipyramidal electron-pair geometry and a linear molecular geometry. The hybridization of the central iodine atom is ________. Answer: sp3d 58. The hybridization of the xenon atom in XeOF4 is ________. Answer: sp3d2 59. Draw a Lewis structure of xenon trioxide. What is the hybridization of the xenon atom in this molecule? Answer: The hybridization is sp3. 60. Draw the valence molecular orbital energy level diagram for nitrogen monoxide, NO. |? *2p | |[pic] | | |? *2p | | | | |? 2p | |[pic] | | |? 2p |[pic] | |[pic] | |? *2s | |[pic] | | |? 2s | |[pic][pic] | | Answer: ———————– [pic] [pic] [pic] [pic]

Combative scholarship in Southeast Asia Term Paper

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Supply Chain Management - Essay Example However, this conclusion entirely depends on the method used to compute the discount rate and it has not been clearly specified whether inflation and other economical changes have been accommodated in this discount rate. The required IRR for the investment is 15%. But the actual IRR for the investment turns out to be 23.5%, which is higher than the required rate. This indicates that the investment is preferable, when the required and actual IRR values are concerned. IRR indicates the discount or interest rate at which NPV equates to zero, i.e., a ‘no gain – no loss’ situation. Higher this rate, higher is the margin of safety. As the actual IRR is higher than the required IRR for the investment, it is clear that the investment is profitable and SBX has a safety margin of about 5.5 %, in case any of the estimations go wrong. Depreciation is straight line and the salvage value is zero – Straight line depreciation is not a valid measure and it is highly unlikely for the salvage value to be zero (at least equals to scrap value in real

Candys dog Essay Example for Free

Candys dog Essay In Section three of â€Å"Of Mice and Men† we come to a significant part of the story where Carlson shoots Candy’s dog. From previous sections in the book, Steinbeck has made it evident that Candy’s dog is important to Candy. When we are first introduced to Candy and his dog, Steinbeck repeatedly describes both characters as â€Å"old†, showing how alike both are. â€Å"Old Candy, the swamper, came in and went to his bunk, and behind him struggled his old dog. † In this sentence, the adjective used to describe both characters is â€Å"old†. This suggests the similarity between them, showing that they are both reaching nearer to the end of their life. While Slim, George, Candy and his dog are in the bunk house, Carlson comes in and talks to Slim. He then complains about the smell of the dog. â€Å"God awmighty that dog stinks. Get him outta here, Candy! † Carlson makes it clear that he doesn’t like the dog being in the bunk house as it brings a foul smell with it. But when Candy hears Carlson say this, he reaches over to pat his dog as if it is fully aware of what is being said. This action evinces that Candy is apologising to the dog on Carlson’s behalf. Candy treats his dog like a human as his dog is his only companion. However, the workers at the ranch see him only as a dog. When Carlson mentions to Candy about shooting his dog, Candy’s actions and dialogues convey how Candy feels about this idea. â€Å"Candy looked about unhappily. ‘No,’ he said softly. ‘No, I couldn’t do that. I had him too long. ’ Candy is reluctant to let Carlson shoot his dog and we know this through the use of the adverb â€Å"unhappily†. Candy words make it evident that he is not ready to lose his only company. Candy purposefully tries to delay Carlson when he says, â€Å"You ain’t got no gun. † He is hopeful that Carlson doesn’t have the necessary items to kill Candy’s dog with. When the men hear the shot that marks the death of Candy’s dog, Candy’s reaction towards the death of his dog illustrates his emotions. â€Å"For a moment he continued to stare at the ceiling. Then he rolled slowly over and faced the wall and lay silent. † This action symbolises an act of rejecting the outside world. Candy’s dog was his only way of staying happy. But now that his dog has been shot, he has nothing else in the world that is worth living for. During this conversation between Carlson and Candy, George interrupts. â€Å"George said, ‘I seen a guy in Weed that had an Airedale could herd sheep. Learned it from the other dogs. ’† George tries divert Carlson’s attention to a different topic. This indicates that George is attempting to assist Candy in saving his dog. George is being empathetic towards Candy as he might understand how Candy will feel when he loses his only companion. He is taking into account other’s feelings before his own. We see this previously in the book where George stands up for Lennie when Curley threatens him. George’s only companion is Lennie and he has travelled with Lennie in search of work for a very long time. George may be the only person who realises how difficult it will be for Candy if he found himself alone after a very long time. As Carlson continuously encourages Candy to let him shoot Candy’s dog, Carlson turns to Slim for support. He asks Slim, â€Å"I bet Slim would give you one of his pups to raise up, wouldn’t you, Slim? † From previous descriptions in the book, the audience is aware that Slim is an influential character in the novel. Steinbeck makes a direct judgement about him unlike he does with the other characters in the book. Steinbeck describes him as â€Å"Majestic† and â€Å"Prince of the ranch†. Nearing the death of Candy’s dog, Steinbeck once again shows us the importance of Slim’s character at the ranch when Carlson asks for Slim’s opinion on the matter. When Slim agrees with Carlson that Candy’s dog should be shot Candy look’s helplessly at Slim: â€Å"Candy looked helplessly at him, for Slim’s opinions were law. † Steinbeck yet again directly informs the reader that Slim’s opinions are not taken lightly but seriously by the men on the ranch. It is clear that the men on the ranch constantly have respect for Slim and they do as Slim says. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE John Steinbeck section.

Peace Cultures in Action Today Essay Example for Free

Peace Cultures in Action Today Essay In â€Å"Peace Cultures in Action Today†, the author argues that some small isolated societies manage to create a culture of peace that often ends or is severely modified when they begin interacting with outside cultures. The argument then is that the greater society of the world is less peaceful than these small isolated societies. This theory warrants further study, especially in the area of how these societies react when confronted with societies that do not have the same values. For example, when the Zuni and Inuit are confronted by the larger populace of the United States, do they become more competitive? The interesting question here then is, â€Å"Is competititiveness and aggression a learned behavior? † In the piece, â€Å"To Construct Peace† , Elise and Kenneth Boulding too argue that peaceable existence is a learned behavior and that it can be taught. Elise was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize for this theory, but it does not seem particularly sound. Even their own pacifist leanings led to conflict. Though the conflict was in the court systems over the right to become a citizen without an oath to bear arms for the country and a battle over their refusal to sign anti-Communist statements during the McCarthy era, it was still a conflict based on their moral standing. Therefore, it is safe to believe that even in people who believe in and are taught to live in peace, conflict may be inevitable when dealing with the real world. Later the same peace cites Thomas Merton and his poetry and meditations against war and his disappointment that the church could support a â€Å"just war† theory. This again is an interesting position that requires more exploration. Should society allow tragic events to continue because of a belief in peace or should war become a tool of peace? The moral and social ambiguities are clear. If a person is being oppressed and his pacificits nature is being used to subjugate or eradicate him, isn’t there some point at which man must fight for his own survival? This is the point that all of the essayists seem to miss. Peace for peace’s sake is a good thing and being taught to attempt peaceful coexistence before immediately turning to aggressive behaviors may be appropriate. However, if the species is to survive, at some point base instincts overcome learning and the fight for survival becomes more powerful that the desire for peace.

Role of Schedules of Reinforcement

Role of Schedules of Reinforcement To what extent are schedules of reinforcement more than just rules governing which responses will be reinforced? Illustrate your answer with basic and applied research examples. I am writing this essay in order to illustrate the role of schedules of reinforcement; basic and applied research examples provide evidence that schedules of reinforcement are more than just rules governing which responses will be reinforced. A schedule of reinforcement is defined as a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement, those environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will produce reinforcement (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007). There are two basic types in a schedule of reinforcement: a continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF schedule) is one in which each occurence of a response is reinforced, and an intermittent reinforcement schedule where each occurence of the response is not reinforced; rather, responses are occasionally or intermittently reinforced (Miltenberger, 2008). Ferster and Skinner (1957) studied various types of intermittent reinforcement schedules and described four basic types in this category: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval. In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, a specific or fixed number of responses must occur before the reinforcer is delivered; in a variable ratio (VR) schedule, delivery of a reinforcer is based on the number of responses that occur, but in this case, the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time, around an average number; in a fixed interval (FI) schedule, the interval of time is fixed, or stays the same each time; in a variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an interval of time has elapsed (Miltenberger, 2008). There are also some variations on the basic intermittent schedules of reinforcement: a) the schedules of differential reinforcement of rates of responding and, b) the progressive schedules of reinforcement. Differential reinforcement provides an intervention for behavior problems associated with rate of response and that means that it is a variation of ratio schedule; delivery of the reinforcer is contingent on responses occuring at a rate either higher than or lower than some predetermined criterion (Cooper, 2007). The reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion is called differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH); when responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion, the schedule provides differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL). There is also the differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule that provides reinforcement at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterio n that is gradually decreased across time intervals based on the individuals performance (Cooper, 2007). Progessive schedules of reinforcement by contrast, systematically thin each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the participants behavior (Cooper, 2007), Progressive ratio (PR) and progressive interval (PI) schedules of reinforcement change schedule requirements using a) arithmetic progressions to add a constant amount to each successive ratio or interval or b) geometric progressions to add successively a constant proportion of the preceding ratio or interval (Lattal Neef, 1996). Additionally, applied behavior analysts combine the elements of continuous reinforcement, the four schedules of reinforcement, differential reinforcement of various rates of responding and extinction to form compound schedules of reinforcement. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement occur when a) two or more contingencies of reinforcement b) operate independently and simultaneously c)for two or more behaviors (Cooper, 2007). Discriminative schedules of reinforcement consist of a) multiple schedules -present two or more basic schedules of reinforrcement in an alterating, usually random, sequence; the basic schedules within the multiple schedule occur successively and independently and a discriminative stimulus is correlated with each basic schedule; the stimulus is present as long as the schedule is in effect- and b) chained schedules -the multiple and chained schedules have two or more basic schedule requirements that occur successively and have a discriminative stimulus correlated wi th each independent schedule (Cooper, 2007). Nondiscriminative schedules consist of a) mixed schedules -use an identical procedure to multiple ones but, without discriminative stimuli- and b) tandem schedules -identical to chained schedules, but also without the discriminative stimuli (Cooper, 2007). Now through basic and applied research examples from all types of schedules of reinforcement, it is going to be shown the role of schedules of reinforcement; the schedules of reinforcement play a major role in a behavior change program, and also in the acquisition and maintenance of a behavior. In the study of Kirby and Shields (1972), a systematic measure of changes in academic response rate and accuracy through a more direct approach to academic performance was conducted. The study was designed to measure the combined effects of an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule of immediate praise and immediate correctness feedback on the arithmetic response rate of a seventh- grade student and to measure possible collateral changes in study behavior. The study was divided into four phases: baseline, treatment 1, reversal, treatment 2. Using an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule, delivery of reinforcement was initially given for every two problems completed; then, the experimenter gradually increased the units of work or number of problems completed before delivering reinforcement. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the fixed-ratio schedule of praise and immediate correctness feedback in increasing the subjects arithmetic response rate and associated attending behavior. When students rate of correct problem solving was increased through systematic reinforcement, incompatible behaviors of non-attending decreased. It was also noted that during reversal, when all praise and immediate correctness feedback was withheld, the subject maintained a much higher level of arithmetic achievement and attending behavior than before treatment 1. The adjusting ratio schedule of reinforcement frequent contact with the student during early ph ases requiring small units of work, it requires no extra effort during later phases when large units of work are assigned. In the study of De Luca and Holborn (1992), the effects of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement on pedaling a stationary exercise bicycle were examined. A changing-criterion design was used in which each successive criterion was increased over mean performance rate in the previous phase by approximately 15%. The participants were 3 obese and 3 nonobese boys. The experimental phases were: baseline, VR-first subphase (the VR schedule of reinforcement was introduced after a stable baseline had been achieved), VR-second subphase (stability had been achieved in the first subphase), VR-third subphase (stability was achieved for the second subphase), return to baseline and return to VR third subphase. All participants had systematic increases in their rate of pedaling with each VR value, meaning that the larger the variable ratio, the higher the rate of response. The results indicated that the rate of exercise can be increased using a VR schedule of reinforcement. The introduction of the initial VR subphase of the changing-criterion design produced marked increases in the rate of exercise for all subjects. Rasmussen and Oneill (2006), examined the effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of students with emotional-behavioral disorders in a clinical day-treatment classroom setting. The participants were three elementary-aged students and the dependent variable for all 3 participants was the frequency of verbal disruptions. The study employed an ABAB withdrawl design, alternating between baseline and FI conditions -verbal praise and pats on the arm were provided, with a final brief schedule thinning phase for each participant. All participants exhibited variable but relatively high rates during baseline. Implementation of FT schedules resulted in immediate, substantial, and stable decreases for all participants. The results of this study demonstrate the use of FT schedules and their implementation in a day-treatment classroom setting with children with clinically diagnosed emotional or behavioral disorders. These procedures were effective in reducing disruptive verbal behavior and these reductions were maintained while the FI schedules underwent initial thinning. The effectiveness of fixed-time schedules has also been evaluated through data on both appropriate and inappropriate responses. In the study of Roane, Fisher and Sgro (2001), fixed-time schedules were used in order to reduce destructive behavior but also, to increase adaptive behavior. The participant was a 12-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder and traumatic brain injury. There were two conditions: control condition and FT condition; with the exception of the FT schedule of reinforcement, the FT condition was identical to the control condition. During the FT condition, increases in two adaptive responses were observed, even though neither response was reinforced through direct contingencies. Similarly, decreases in destructive behavior were obtained under the FT schedule. The results suggest that, in addition to suppressing inappropriate behavior, FT schedules may also increase and stabilize adaptive behavior. Austin and Soeda (2008), validated the use of fixed-time reinforcer delivery with typically developing population. A fixed-time teacher attention was used to decrease off-task behavior in two third-grade boys. An ABAB was used with two phases: baseline (the teacher interacted with the boys in her usual manner) and noncontingent reinforcement-NCR (the teacher provided attention on an FT schedule). The findings indicated that NCR was an effective strategy for reducing the off-task behaviors of both boys, as immediate and sustained reductions in the percentage of intervals with off-task behavior were observed. Van Camp, Lerman, Kelley, Contrucci and Vondran (2000), evaluated the efficacy of noncontingent reinforcement with variable interval schedules in reducing problem behavior maintained by social consequences, comparing the effects of VT and FT reinforcement schedules with 2 individuals who had been diagnosed with moderate to severe mental retardation. Baseline and treatment conditions -with FT and VT sessions- were conducted in both participants. Although previous studies on the use of NCR as treatment for problem behavior have primarily examined FT schedules, results of this study indicated that VT schedules were as effective as FT schedules in reducing problem behavior. Carr, Kellum and Chong (2001), examined the effects of fixed-time and variable-time schedules on responding with 2 adults with mental retardation. Multielement and reversal designs were used to compare the effects of FT and VT schedules previously maintained on variable-ratio reinforcement schedules. The target behavior for the first participant was defined as making a penci mark on his name and placing the paper into the receptable. The target behavior for the second participant was defined as picking up a paper clip and dropping it in the receptable. The experimental phases were: baseline, FR 1 reinforcement, VR 3 reinforcement, FT, VT. The results showed that both FT and VT schedules were equally effective in reducing the target behaviors. Wright and Vollmer (2002), used a treatment package that involved an adjusting differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate responding (DRL) schedule, response blocking and prompts in order to reduce rapid eating. The participant was a 17-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with profound mental retardation. The experimental phases consisted of baseline and treatment condition, where an adjusting DRL procedure was introduced, along with blocking and prompts. The DRL intervals were determined by calculating the average IRT from previous sessions. The results showed that the treatment package was effective in increasing the IRTs between each attempted bite of food. The treatment package also resulted in an increase in the negative side-effects (increase in the levels of SIB and tantrums). However, the treatment continued despite these side-effects, which eventually decreased. In the study of Dietz and Repp (1973), a differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule was used in order to decrease classroom misbehavior. The procedure that was followed was that reinforcement was produced when responding was less than a limit for a period of time, rather than when a response followed a specified period of no responding. Three experiments were conducted. In the first experiment DRD schedule was implemented to reduce the talking-out behavior of one 11-year old boy, classified as trainable mentally retarded (TRM) in a special classroom. The second experiment involved the reduction of talk-outs in a group of ten TRM students in an also special classroom, and the third experiment involved the use of a DRD schedule to reduce the verbal behavior of a group of 15 high school students in a regular class. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of DRD schedules in reducing classroom disruption both in individual and in group behaviors. In addition, the success with both TRM students and with high school students suggests the efficacy of DRD schedules across widely divergent groups. In the present study the use of positive reinforcement suggests also a nonpunitive method of classroom control. Roane, Lerman and Vorndran (2001), tried to examine if the reinforcing stimuli can be differentially effective as response requirements increase by evaluating responding under increasing schedule requirements via progressive-ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses. In experiment 1 (reinforcer assessment), four individuals with developmental disabilities, who had been referred for the assessment and treatment of severe behavior problems, participated. The findings showed that one stimulus was associated with greater response persistence under increasing schedule requirements for all participants. Results also suggested that progressive schedules allow a relatively expeditious examination of shifts in reinforcer preference or value under increasing schedule requirements. In experiment 2, the correspondence between responding under progressive schedules and levels of destructive behavior under various reinforcement-based treatments was examined in order to evaluate the utility of the reinforcer assessment. Three interventions were selected: noncontingent reinforcement, DRA and DRO. Results indicated that the high-preference stimuli identified via this assessment were more likely to reduce problem behavior or increase adaptive behavior than stimuli identified as less preferred. In summary, results of this study suggest that stimuli identified as similarly preferred via a commonly used preference assessment were differentially effective under increasing schedule requirements. Additionally, stimuli that were more effective under progressive schedules were more likely to produce decreases in problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. The influence of concurrent reinforcement schedules on behavior change without the use of extinction was examined by Hoch, McComas and Thomson (2002). Two responses were measured: problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement, and task completion in three children with autism. Moreover, the maintenance of behavior change was evaluated under conditions of increased response requirements and leaner schedules of reinforcement. The results showed that immediate and sustained decreases in problem behavior and increases in task completion occurred when task completion produced both negative reinforcement and access to preferred activities and problem behavior continued to result in negative reinforcement. The findings demonstrated that concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be arranged to decrease negatively reinforced problem behavior and increase an adaptive alternative response without the use of escape extinction. Tiger and Hanley (2004), described a multiple-schedule procedure to reduce ill-timed requests, which involved providing children with two distinct continuous signals that were correlated with periods in which teacher attention was either available or unavailable. Cammilleri, Tiger and Hanley (2008), conducted a study in order to assess the efficacy of a classwide application of the multiple-schedule procedure described by Tiger and Hanley when implemented by teachers during instructional periods in three elementary classrooms. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of a classwide multiple-schedule procedure when implemented by teachers in a private elementary school classroom. Conclusively, schedules of reinforcement are not only rules that govern which responses will be reinforced; they are substantial components of a behavior change program. CRF schedules are used in the acquisition of a behavior -when a person is learning a behavior or engaging in the behavior for the first time. Once the person has acquired or learned the behavior, an intermittent reinforcement schedule is used so that the person continues to engage in the behavior -maintenance of behavior (Miltenberger, 2008). In this way, schedules of reinforcement help in the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement, which is a major goal for most behavior change programs. It was shown that schedules of reinforcement can be applied effectively in different settings, behaviors, populations. They have been used to decrease inappropriate behaviors such as rapid eating (Wright Vollmer, 2002) or classroom misbehavior (Dietz Repp, 1973); to increase appropriate behaviors such as arithmetic response rate and attending behavior (Kirby Shields, 1972). They have also been applied in both typically developing children (e.g. Austin Soeda, 2008), and in children with behavior problems (e.g. Rasmussen ONeill, 2006). Schedules of reinforcement can have great effects in a behavior change program, but it is also very important to know how and when to apply the most appropriate schedule or a combination of them in a specific behavior. References Austin, J. L., Soeda, J. M. (2008). Fixed-time teacher attention to decrease off-task behaviors of typically developing third graders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 279-283. Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers: Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303. Carr, J. E., Kellum, K. K., Chong, I. M. (2001). The reductive effects of noncontingent reinforcement: Fixed-time versus variable-time schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 505-509. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. De Luca, R. V., Holborn, S. W. (1992). Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 671-679. Dietz, S. M., Repp, A. C. (1973). Decreasing classroom misbehavior through the use of DRL schedules of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 457-463. Hoch, H., McComas, J. J. and Thomson, A. L., Paone, D. (2002). Concurrent reinforcement schedules: Behavior change and maintenance without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 155-169. Kirby, F. D., Shields, F. (1972). Modification of arithmetic response rate and attending behavior in a seventh-grade student. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 79-84. Lattal, K. A., Neef, N. A. (1996). Recent reinforcement-schedule research and applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 213-220. Cited in Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Rasmussen, K., ONeill, R. E. (2006). The effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of children with emotional and behavioral disorders in a day-treatment classroom setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 453-457. Roane, H. S., Fisher, W. W., Sgro, G. M. (2001). Effects of a fixed-time schedule on aberrant and adaptive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 333-336. Roane, H. S., Lerman, D. C. and Vorndran, C. M. (2001). Assessing reinforcers under progressive schedule requirements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 145-167. Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2004). Developing stimulus control of preschooler mands: An analysis of schedule-correlated and contingency-specifying stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 517-521. Cited in Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers: Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303. Van Camp, C. M., Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Contrucci, S. A., Vorndran, C. M. (2000). Variable-time reinforcement schedules in the treatment of socially maintained problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 545-557. Wright, C. S., Vollmer, T. R. (2002). Evaluation of a treatment package to reduce rapid eating. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 89-93.

Essay --

Claire Liu Hon History 9, per 8 Ms. Fowler December 12, 2013 1920s Positive and Negative Changes The 1920s in America saw numerous changes in the US. The postwar trends and fear of communism, and rise of many groups like the Ku Klux Klan effected the American citizens. Feelings of nativism spread as Quota acts were passed and the Labor movement loses appeal. Two presidents- Calvin Coolidge and Warren G. Harding effected the government in different ways. Technology advancement in cars and electricity triggered urban sprawl and the installment plan. Science and religion clashed with the Scopes Trial and Prohibition. The role of the American women changed and the Harlem Renaissance provided a way for African Americans to express themselves. Overall, the 1920s had a more positive effect on society. In the 1920s, American Industries flourished under President Calvin Coolidge. Both Coolidge Herbert Hoover preferred governmental policies that kept taxes low and business profits high. They fit the pro-business essence of the 1920s perfectly. High tariffs helped American manufacturers, government management in business was decreasing, and wages were increasing. The automobile was the main support of the American economy from 1920-1970. It greatly transformed the American countryside and civilization. Some of the various changes included: Paved roads, traffic lights, motels, billboards, home design, gas stations, repair shops, shopping centers, freedom for rural families, independence for women and young people, and growing cities. By 1920, 80% of world’s vehicles were being driven in the U.S. This lead to Urban Sprawl- when cities spread in all directions. The American airline industry started carrying mail and eventual... ...ted by mobsters (criminals, gangsters) in their quest for territory to distribute alcohol. With the installment plan, everything could be bought on credit. It allowed people to buy goods over an longer period, without having to pay much money at time of purchase. However, there was a central weakness, superficial economic prosperity, people sunk into debt. The 1920s gave negative impacts as well with the country being divided, rise of anti-immigrant socialist parties, labor unrest, corruption in the government, and organized crime. The decade known as the â€Å"roaring 20s† had more positive effects on society than negative. The birth of modern America began with electricity, automobiles, and radio. The modern women emerged with more available jobs and more time to manage their families and finances. The 1920s were a big step into what has become of the US today.

Assyrian Art Essay -- essays research papers

Assyrian Art The reliefs from the palace of King Assurnasirpal II at Nimrud play an important role in portraying the power and importance of the Assyrian king. These reliefs are similar to other Assyrian reliefs in terms of their purpose; however, there is a contrast in the methods used to glorify the king. By examining such factors as style, iconography and historical significance, we find many similarities and differences between the "ceremonial" reliefs and the more common reliefs depicting war and hunting. The reliefs belonging to the sacred or"ceremonial" category consist of panels depicting a sacred tree, a human headed genius fertilizing a sacred tree, a griffin fertilizing a sacred tree, and a scene of King Assurnasirpal (whose name comes from the god "Assur") followed by a winged genius. Dating to about 870 B.C., these reliefs were originally located in the antechamber to the royal throne hall and in the living room where it would have been viewed by distinguished guests. Because of their location and larger than life size, the reliefs "...instill in the beholder a sense of awe and reverence for the king...." (Art History Anthology 28). Moreover, the reliefs overwhelm the viewer by depicting the king's power and god-like divinity through propagandistic iconography and stylization. To portray the king's god-like divinity, the reliefs represent the deities and Assurnasirpal in a similar manner. First of all, hierarchic scale is almost absent since all the figures are closely related in size, with Assurnasirpal being only slightly shorter than the deities. In historical context, this shows that Assyrian kings were closely associated with deities, but were not considered gods themselves. This lack of hierarchic scale is also seen in the Lion Hunt of Assurbanipal, where king Assurbanipal is shown slightly larger than his servants. Secondly, the deities and Assurnasirpal are similar in stance and stylization. All the figures have their head and legs shown in profile, while the torso is shown halfway frontal. In addition, the figures maintain a stiff vertical stance with their arms extended in either straight lines or are stiffly bent into a ninety-degree angle. In the third panel, both a winged deity and Assurnasirpal are depicted facing towards the right with their left feet forward; however, in contrast, the human headed genius and the griffin ... ...a symmetrical manner with intertwining branches, stylized leaves, and a fan of leaves above the trunk. The winged geniuses are fertilizing the sacred tree with a date blossom in their right hand and holding a sacred bucket in their left. In addition, panel three shows a winged deity following Assurnasirpal with his right hand raised over the king "in a gesture of benediction and divine protection" (Art History Anthology 28). By placing these reliefs in his antechamber and living room, Assurnasirpal "emphasizes the sacred character of the Assyrian king, elected by the gods, although not himself of divine substance" (Frankfort 87). In conclusion, we find that the reliefs from the palace of King Assurnasirpal II play an important role in exhibiting the power and importance of the king. While an Assyrian king's power can be depicted is a war-like manner by his military might, we learn that"ceremonial" reliefs are also effective by placing the king in relation to gods. The power and importance of the king is shown through a peaceful manner that highly contrasts the scenes of death and fighting found in such reliefs as the lion hunt of Assurbanipal and the battle scene of Assurnasirpal.

DNA Analysis: Validity And Doubts :: essays research papers

DNA : Criminal Identification Validity and Doubts   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  DNA, although controversial on accuracy, has provided a new means of identifying criminals where there is little physical evidence. This allows you to take a piece of hair, a spot of blood, or skin tissue and make a positive identification on a suspect. Since it's first use by the FBI in December 1988 it has grown to become a major factor in criminal investigation. This new key gives them help when the crime scene lacks evidence. DNA evidence also allows detectives to narrow down suspects and keep innocent people from being prosecuted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1990 the FBI began development of a national DNA identification index. The FBI has received over 10,000 submissions of DNA evidence from police agencies and DNA evidence has been used in over 500 cases throughout the United States. The FBI performs testing for free to all police agencies to help keep costs down in prosecuting criminals. More than 50 laboratories perform DNA analysis around the US. The chances of two people having the same DNA profile is 1 in 50,000 all the way to 1 in 5 million according to scientists estimates.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  DNA controls all our inheritable information like eye color, hair color, skin color, etc. DNA differs in all people except for identical twins. All cellular matter contains DNA: this includes white blood cells, bone cells, tissue cells, spermatozoa, and hair root cells. Adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine are the building blocks of DNA strands which make up the letters of a genetic code. In certain regions of a DNA strand the sequence of genetic code is unique which allows scientists to identify an individual and exclude others.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The FBI, Cellmark, and Lifecodes are the 3 major laboratories that courts accept DNA profiles from. As estimated by the FBI, the chances of two DNA samples being the same is as low as one in a trillion. Critics of DNA say that the FBI has falsely applied theories of population biology behind it's calculations, so courtrooms make DNA seem inaccurate. More than half the states have a mandatory DNA testing of all people convicted of sexual charges and violent offenses, to help in future criminal investigations. Although some people say that this is an invasion of privacy, it's a good way to prosecute repeat offenders and find suspects when only DNA evidence is available.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As accurate as DNA profiling is, there are still many questions about the